By Julia Owerko
Photo Credit: Britannica
Poland's tumultuous history has forged a cultural identity deeply rooted in the reverence of historical memory, which has become a cornerstone of Polish self-perception. Historical memory shapes cultural values and self-perceptions that over time define a country’s identity on the global stage relative to their historical partnerships with other nations. Prolonged periods of oppression, notably in the nineteenth century and during World War II, have woven into the fabric of Polish society a value system that accentuates patriotism and heroism as prime virtues in the face of adversity. Polish nationalism was born out of suffering at the hands of an enemy, a model that upholds triumph over the oppressor as the ultimate victory. Consequently, tales of resilience and conquest have become foundational to Poland's cultural ethos, influencing its literature, art, and public discourse, all of which further reinforces the significance of historical memory in sculpting the Polish national identity. Poland’s persistent and enduring struggle against domination has crystallized into a national identity that prioritizes collective memory, steadfast patriotism, and a perpetual spirit of defiance and resilience which has informed the country’s understanding of relationships with foreign partners and its self-conduct in international relations.
Poland's relationship with its history is unique compared to most nations. Even today, Poland puts its history on a pedestal, especially the tragic massacres, genocides, and heroic battles that emphasize Poland’s resilience and strength. Poland has had a complicated history marked by suffering, invasions, and violence, and the Poles take great pride in having overcome these challenges. s. Situated precariously on the Western European border, Poland was historically the threshold to Western Europe, making it susceptible to recurrent invasions. Noteworthy are Poland's celebrated victories over attack, such as the Battle of Vienna in 1683 and the Battle of Warsaw of 1920, the latter being commemorated as a pivotal moment in Polish and European history alike recognizing that Poland’s victory over the Bolshevik invasion prevented the spread of the communist revolution into Western Europe. The phrase “Cud nad Wisłą” or “Miracle on the Vistula,” refers to the Battle of Warsaw, which epitomizes the extraordinary achievement in Polish history and celebrates Poland as Europe's bulwark against Eastern aggressors, particularly Russia. The battle is so universally regarded as a capstone of Polish history that the phrase “Miracle on the Vistula'' has been adapted as an idiomatic phrase expressing an extraordinary feat. The strong emphasis that Poles place on crowning moments of Polish history has created a historical memory of Poland as a “protector” of Europe against eastern aggressors, most notably Russia. Tomasz Zarycki, a social studies professor at the University of Warsaw, even writes that “The list of the historical events where Poles credit themselves with saving Europe ... from the Russian threat would be quite long if one were to make a detailed overview of Polish historiography.” Zarycki goes as far as to say that the 1920 Battle of Warsaw is “most crucial and emblematic of Poland as the Antemurale” in which “Poland is represented as the savior of Europe,” (Zarycki 611).
The key to Poland’s ability to withstand more than a century of occupation between 1795 and 1918 is the Poles’ unique collective identity that derives strength from the pain of suffering and unifies the nation against common enemies. This concept is illustrated by sociologist Alexander Wendt in his book Social Theory of International Politics which recognizes the fundamental assumptions of constructivism in that first, “the structures of human association are determined primarily by shared ideas,” and second, “the identities and interests of purposive actors are constructed by these shared ideas,” (Wendt 1). By incorporating sociology into his analysis of politics, Wendt’s definition of constructivism, a theory that posits that the behavior of states and other actors in the international system is shaped by shared ideas, norms, and identities rather than solely by material forces or self-interest, explores the personal motivations of people as a society in the behavior of the state. In the case of Poland, because these personal motivations are rooted in the nation’s collective historical memory of struggle and triumph, Poles instinctually unify against a common enemy. The “shared ideas,” which Wendt references, are defining characteristics that give Poles an innate national endurance that enables them to withstand existential threats and as such, has been critical to Poland’s survival.
The narrative of a valorous Poland, battered yet unyielding in its quest for freedom against merciless oppressors, forms the backbone of Polish patriotism and historical memory. This nationalism, nourished by the remembrance of overcoming insurmountable challenges, engraves painful memories into the nation's identity. As Yale sociology professor Ronald Eyerman posits, “From the perspective of cultural sociological theory, the very fact of the memory of painful experience being suppressed, not only the murders themselves, contributed to the emergence of collective anxiety and enabled victims to construct yet another dimension of their collective injury,” (Eyerman 240). For Poles, the suppression of painful memories, alongside the atrocities themselves, fuels collective anxiety and enables the construction of a shared sense of grievance. The ensuing survival instinct catalyzes Polish nationalism, allowing Poles to harness their collective suffering as a source of strength to retaliate.
The Polish ability to assemble as a nation in light of a threat is the result of its turbulent past necessitating moments of national unity to counter the frequent aggressions it suffered at the hands of its neighbors. Poland’s central location in Europe means that the country has historically been in a vulnerable position for attacks from its neighbors. Foreign aggression has become a recurring theme in the country’s historical narrative, shaping its national identity as a victim of attacks. The shared ordeal at the hands of the Russians historically fostered a robust unity and resistance among the Polish populace. In the face of annihilation, Tadeusz Kościuszko, a famous Polish general, led the 1795 Kościuszko Uprising against the Prussian and Russian empires as an effort to save his country from being consumed by the neighboring empires. The Kościuszko Uprising fueled a drastic rise of nationalism and ignited a strong fighting spirit in the Polish people. However, despite the efforts of the uprising, on October 24, 1795, Poland was partitioned for the third time and its name was erased from the map for 123 years. For more than a century the only way Poland existed was through memories of the past and glorifying the heroic efforts of its predecessors.
Poland’s geopolitical fate is perfectly illustrated by the diplomacy of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact of August 23, 1939, through which Stalin’s Soviet Union and Hitler’s Third Reich secretly agreed to divide Eastern Europe between themselves, leaving Poland vulnerable. With the borders closing in on Poland, this agreement effectively sealed its fate, leading to the dual invasions in September 1939 that erased Poland from the map and marked the beginning of World War II in Europe. However, Poland’s surrender on September 17, 1939, was not the end of Polish resistance. Instead, Polish historian Grzegorz Ostasz argues Poland’s “long tradition of struggles for independence” led to the emergence of “a cultural self-defense” and “a struggle for cultural legacy began.” (Ostasz 224) In covert defiance of apparent defeat, the Polish State functioned throughout World War II as an illegal underground network while the main executive branches of government operated from offices in Paris and then moved to London after Hitler’s invasion of France in 1940.
Poland’s deep-rooted historical memory of resilience and unity in the face of adversity served as a foundation for the nation’s collective efforts during World War II, exemplified by the swift organization and effectiveness of the Polish Underground State, a testament to the collective strength that unified the nation in desperate times of war. Fighting against oppression became an integral aspect of everyone’s lives, even civilians and the youth. Some of the most famous Polish Underground State operations were carried out by a division of the Home Army (“Armia Krajowa” or “AK”) known as “Mały Sabotaż” or “Minor Sabotage".” This subdivision was a form of resistance carried out by Polish adolescents and was part of a larger campaign against the Nazis aimed at undermining German morale without engaging in direct confrontations with the Gestapo. Minor Sabotage’s rebellious acts targeted German officers and were designed to disrupt the everyday functioning of the Gestapo through minimally violent or non-violent methods. Danuta Kaczyńska, an activist that worked in the ranks of Minor Sabotage, remembered that after the fall of France in June of 1940, the Polish nation sunk into a deep feeling of apathy. Kaczyński explained that it was under these circumstances that “the initiative of Minor Sabotage has emerged: it is too early for armed combat, but efforts must be made to boost the morale of society and to show the Germans that they are in an occupied country, but not a conquered one,” (Kaczyński).
The acts of Minor Sabotage included tearing down the occupier’s flags, painting propaganda slogans on walls, and distributing leaflets of the Polish Underground State. The efforts of “Mały Sabotaż” were crucial in preserving Polish national identity and morale during the occupation. The graffiti symbols such as the Kotwica (Anchor, a symbol representing the fighting Poland) were sprayed all over the city and also served to communicate to the Nazis that the Polish spirit was unconquered and that resistance existed at every level of society. One of the most famous operations was carried out by the infamous Alek Dawidowski, who successfully removed a German plaque from a Warsaw monument honoring Nikolaj Copernicus. These actions, although small when considered individually, collectively created an impactful resistance movement that carried out endless acts of heroism and patriotism, even prompting Aleksander Kamiński, a former boy-scout, to write a book honoring the bravery of the young boys in the unit.
Kamiński’s novel Stones for the Rampart follows the lives of three friends, Zośka, Alek and Rudy, who fight against the German occupation through the means of Minor Sabotage and later, once they graduate from the junior ranks, the book follows their fate in the Diversion units tasked with armed operations. Their stories of heroism and patriotism were written down by Kamiński and published in 1943 as another effort to embolden Poles and boost the nation's morale. Their fearlessness and determination were praised by thousands of readers, who, with every page of the book, became inspired to fight for Poland’s independence. Stones for the Rampart became for Poland what Thomas Paine’s Common Sense was for the American Revolution - a call to action. The trio’s bravery and courage were glorified as a means to inspire a rise of nationalism and reignite a fighting spirit in preparation for the inevitable Warsaw Uprising which was carried out a year later in 1944. Through his literature, Kamiński reminded Poles of their national identity and the virtues of resilience, unity, and the enduring spirit of resistance against oppression, embodying the collective memory and historical experiences that have shaped Poland through centuries of trials and triumphs.
This deep-rooted historical memory, cultivated through literature like Kamiński’s and echoed in the accounts of historians like Norman Davies, a renowned British historian and expert on Polish and European history, profoundly influences Poland’s approach to contemporary challenges. Davies describes the fall of communism in Poland in which “[b]ruised but unbowed, the Polish nation threw off the shackles and sought to savour the promised land of freedom and independence” (Davies 408). Davies’ poetic description of Poland’s fight against communism is reflective of the Polish perspective and echoes the nation’s romantic perception of the centuries-long battle between its ruthless neighbors and the heroic Poland, which against all odds, achieved liberation from the Bolshevik “shackles.” It encapsulates Polish attitudes towards the love of freedom and the sentiment of enduring resilience against oppression. This portrayal not only underscores the valor and determination of the Polish people but also highlights the profound national pride embedded in their history. The narrative weaves a tale of continuous struggle for sovereignty and democracy, illustrating how, through sheer perseverance and unwavering spirit, Poland has repeatedly risen from the ashes of its tumultuous past. This love for freedom, coupled with the sentiment of resilience, forms the backbone of Polish national identity, shaping its culture, politics, and society. The story of Poland's victories over its oppressors are not just a testament to its struggle for independence but also a reflection of the enduring Polish spirit that cherishes liberty above all else.
Poland’s historical memory has been instrumental in shaping its national identity and continues to influence its role in current global politics. Beyond informing attitudes towards its European partners, this collective memory has been a powerful tool for fueling nationalist sentiments, contributing to the rise of conservative political parties such as Law and Justice (PiS). Under the leadership of Jarosław Kaczyński, PiS has adeptly harnessed Poland’s historical struggles - its resilience in the face of foreign oppression and its hard-fought independence - to craft a narrative portraying Poland as a perpetual victim of external aggression. This strategy not only appeals to national pride but also reinforces a sense of unity rooted in shared history. By drawing on these deep-seated historical narratives, Poland has sought to assert itself on the global stage, simultaneously fostering national solidarity and navigating its complex relationship with European partners. In doing so, Poland’s historical memory remains a cornerstone of its political identity and an enduring influence on its path forward.
Work Cited
Davies, Norman. Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland's Present, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2001. ProQuest Ebook Central.
Eyerman, Ronald. Cultural Trauma: Slavery and the Formation of African American Identity. Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Kaczyński, Jarosław. “The Initiative of Minor Sabotage during World War II.” The Sarmatian Review, vol. 26, no. 2, Apr. 2006, https://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/406/262kacz.html.
Ostasz, Grzegorz. “The Polish Government Delegation: The Main Part of the Polish Underground State.” Studia Rzeszowskie, vol. 24, 2017, pp. 91–109. ResearchGate, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318497937_THE_POLISH_GOVERNMENT_DELEGATION_THE_MAIN_PART_OF_THE_POLISH_UNDERGROUND_STATE.
Wendt, Alexander. Social Theory of International Politics. Cambridge University Press, 2014.
Zarycki, Tomasz. “Uses of Russia: The Role of Russia in the Modern Polish National Identity.” East European Politics and Societies: and Cultures, vol. 18, no. 4, 2004, pp. 595–627., https://doi.org/10.1177/0888325404269758.
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